Indonesia

This article is about the country. For other uses, see Indonesia (disambiguation).

Republic of Indonesia Republik Indonesia
Flag Emblem
Motto: Bhinneka Tunggal Ika (Old Javanese) "Unity in Diversity"
Anthem: Indonesia Raya "Great Indonesia"
National ideology and philosophy: Pancasila (Sanskrit) "The Five Principles"
Capital and largest city	Jakarta 6°10′S 106°49′E
Official languages	Indonesian
Indigenous languages	718 languages
Writing system	Latin (predominantly) Regional Javanese Sundanese Batak Balinese and others
Ethnic groups (2010)	40.2% Javanese 15.5% Sundanese 3.6% Batak 2.2% Malay and 600+ others
Religion (2025)	87.2% Islam 10.4% Christianity 1.6% Hinduism 0.7% Buddhism and others
Demonym	Indonesian
Government	Unitary presidential republic
• President	Prabowo Subianto
• Vice President	Gibran Rakabuming Raka
Legislature	People's Consultative Assembly (MPR)
• Upper house	Regional Representative Council (DPD)
• Lower house	House of Representatives (DPR)
Independence  from the Netherlands
• Proclamation	17 August 1945
• Recognition	27 December 1949
Area
• Total	1,904,569 km2 (735,358 sq mi) (14th)
• Water (%)	4.85
Population
• 2025 estimate	288,315,089 (4th)
• 2020 census	270,203,917
• Density	143/km2 (370.4/sq mi) (88th)
GDP (PPP)	2026 estimate
• Total	$5.449 trillion (7th)
• Per capita	$18,973 (103rd)
GDP (nominal)	2026 estimate
• Total	$1.540 trillion (17th)
• Per capita	$5,362 (116th)
Gini (2024)	37.9 medium inequality
HDI (2023)	0.728 high (113th)
Currency	Indonesian rupiah (Rp) (IDR)
Time zone	UTC+7, +8, +9 (WIB, WITA, WIT)
Date format	DD/MM/YYYY
Calling code	+62
ISO 3166 code	ID
Internet TLD	.id

Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian and Pacific oceans. Comprising between 13,000 and 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guinea, it is the world's largest archipelagic state and the 14th-largest country by area. Indonesia has extensive tropical forests and marine ecosystems that support one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity.

The Indonesian archipelago has been inhabited since prehistoric times, with early human presence evidenced by fossils of Homo erectus and Homo sapiens, and megalithic sites. It became connected to regional and international maritime trade networks by the first millennium BCE. Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms developed by early centuries CE, followed by the spread of Islam and the growth of Islamic states from the late medieval period. European powers later competed to monopolise trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery. Dutch commercial and colonial control expanded from the 17th century and was consolidated over most of the archipelago during the 19th and early 20th centuries, before Indonesia proclaimed its independence in the aftermath of World War II.

Since independence, Indonesia has experienced separatist conflicts, corruption, political upheaval and natural disasters, alongside democratisation and rapid economic growth. The country today is a presidential republic with an elected legislature and consists of 38 provinces, some of which enjoy greater autonomy than others. Home to over 280 million people, Indonesia ranks fourth in the world by population and has the largest Muslim population of any country. More than half of Indonesians live on Java, the most heavily populated island in the world, while the capital Jakarta is the world's most populous city.

Indonesia has hundreds of ethnic groups and more than 700 languages, alongside diverse regional cultures. This diversity is reflected in the national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, meaning "unity in diversity". Indonesian, a standardised variety of Malay, is the official and national language and its lingua franca. Indonesia has the largest economy in Southeast Asia, with services and industry accounting for most output and economic activity concentrated on Java. Sea and air transport are the primary means of connecting the country's many islands. Indonesia is a middle power active in regional and global affairs and is a member of the United Nations, G20, the Non-Aligned Movement, ASEAN, and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.

Etymology

Main article: Names of Indonesia

The name Indonesia is usually explained as a combination of India and the Greek word nesos, together meaning 'Indian islands'. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians and Malayunesians for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malay Archipelago", preferring the latter because he considered Indunesians too general. In the same journal, James Richardson Logan adopted Indonesia as a geographical term for the Indian Archipelago.

Usage remained limited for several decades. German ethnographer Adolf Bastian from the University of Berlin gave the term greater scholarly currency by using it in the title of his five-volume work Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipel, published from 1884 to 1894. Dutch scholars nevertheless tended to use Malay Archipelago (Dutch: Maleische Archipel) or the Netherlands East Indies (Nederlandsch Oost Indië). Popular alternatives included Indië, de Oost ("the East"), and, less often, Insulinde.

After 1900, Indonesia became increasingly common in academic and public usage, and Indonesian nationalist organisations adopted it as an expression of national unity and freedom from colonial rule. Among its early Indonesian promoters was Soewardi Soerjaningrat (Ki Hajar Dewantara), who established the Indonesisch Persbureau in The Hague in November 1918, a press bureau that used Indonesia in its name.

History

Main article: History of Indonesia

Prehistory, early states, and Islamisation

Main articles: Prehistoric Indonesia and Spread of Islam in Indonesia

A prehistoric animal figure in the Lubang Jeriji Saléh cave, estimated to be more than 40,000 years old.

The island of Java has yielded numerous hominin fossils generally attributed to Homo erectus, including the type specimen discovered by Eugene Dubois at Trinil. Stone artefacts on Flores show that hominins had reached the island by at least 1.02 million years ago. Homo sapiens had dispersed into Southeast Asia by at least 50,000 years ago. In Sulawesi, narrative cave art has been dated to a minimum age of 51,200 years. Flores also yielded remains of the small-bodied hominin Homo floresiensis. Megalithic traditions later developed at different times across the archipelago, and stone monuments were used for burial and to honour or commemorate ancestors.

Beginning in the third millennium BCE, Austronesian-speaking communities moved south from Taiwan through the Philippines and into the Indonesian archipelago, where related languages eventually spread across most of the islands. Settlement and subsistence patterns varied across the islands, with communities combining fishing, hunting, gathering, and cultivation. From around 500 BCE, regional trading networks increasingly connected the archipelago with South and East Asia. Imported goods, knowledge, and technologies circulated through these networks, and during the early centuries CE some coastal communities in Borneo, Sumatra, and Java developed into trading ports. Indian merchants and religious specialists brought Sanskrit literacy, Hindu and Buddhist practices, and models of kingship that local rulers adopted.

Srivijaya, founded in southeastern Sumatra in the late 7th century CE, grew as a maritime trading polity and a centre of Buddhist learning and religious networks. In central Java, rulers supported the construction of major Hindu and Buddhist monuments between the 8th and 10th centuries, including Borobudur and Prambanan. Majapahit emerged in eastern Java in the late 13th century after Raden Wijaya used a Mongol expedition to defeat his rivals and then forced the Mongols to withdraw. Its rulers claimed suzerainty over a wide network of ports across the archipelago, although beyond Java this authority was often exercised indirectly through tributary, ritual, and commercial relationships rather than continuous territorial control.

By the late 13th century, Muslim rulers were established in parts of northern Sumatra. Perlak was described by Marco Polo as Muslim in 1292, and a royal tomb at Pasai dated 1297 records a Muslim ruler there. Samudra-Pasai became an important pepper port and a major centre for Islamic learning. Islam spread further through maritime trading networks, with Muslim communities becoming established at ports along Java's north coast and elsewhere in the archipelago. Majapahit declined during the 15th century, and Demak emerged as an independent north-coast sultanate and an important centre of Javanese Islam. Early conversions were associated with the Wali Sanga, the nine saints traditionally credited with the spread of Islam in Java. Islamic practice there also incorporated elements of older Javanese culture.

European contact and colonial rule

Main articles: Dutch East India Company in Indonesia and Dutch East Indies

An 1835 painting of the submission of Prince Diponegoro to General De Kock at the end of the Java War in 1830

Before European arrival, spices from Maluku were already traded through Asian maritime networks in which Javanese and other regional merchants participated. The Portuguese captured Malacca in 1511 and reached Maluku the following year, where they sought control of the spice trade. Dutch expeditions followed in the 1590s, and in 1602 competing Dutch companies were merged into the Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, VOC). Its charter authorised it to wage war, build fortresses, and conclude treaties in Asia. In 1619, the VOC captured Jayakarta (present-day Jakarta), renamed it Batavia, and turned it into its headquarters. It developed as an administrative and commercial centre and attracted Chinese migrants and others from the archipelago. The VOC was dissolved in 1800, and its possessions were passed to the Dutch state.

During the 19th century, Dutch power expanded across the archipelago and met sustained resistance in Java, Sumatra, Bali, and Aceh. In western New Guinea, the Dutch established an outpost in 1828, but abandoned it in 1836 and began permanent occupation only after 1898. By the early 20th century, military campaigns and boundary agreements had established Dutch control over a territory that largely corresponded to present-day Indonesia, known then as the Netherlands Indies. The colonial administration ruled several territories directly and governed others through local states whose rulers retained limited authority under Dutch supremacy.

The Ethical Policy became an official programme in 1901 and expanded vernacular schooling, irrigation, and other public services. Western-style schooling also expanded, but it reached only a small minority of the population. During this period, several political organisations were founded, including Budi Utomo in 1908 and Sarekat Islam in 1912, followed by the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) in 1920 and the Indonesian National Party (PNI) in 1927. The Great Depression reached the colony in the early 1930s and had a major social and economic impact. Colonial restrictions on nationalist activity became stricter, and by the mid-1930s, Sukarno, Mohammad Hatta, Sutan Sjahrir, and other non-cooperative nationalist leaders had been imprisoned or exiled.

Emergence of Indonesia and independence

Main articles: Indonesian National Awakening and Indonesian National Revolution

Indonesian nationalists riding through the streets, November 1945

A shared national identity began developing through youth associations and a growing literature in the Malay language, which had long been a lingua franca that did not favour any single ethnic group. Nationalists increasingly called the language Bahasa Indonesia and made it a common medium for the emerging nation. At the Second Youth Congress in Batavia in October 1928, delegates pledged allegiance to one homeland and one nation, Indonesia, and recognised Indonesian as the "language of unity".

Dutch colonial rule collapsed when Japan conquered the colony in 1942. The occupation imposed martial law, banned political parties, and mobilised Indonesians through Japanese-sponsored civil and quasi-military organisations. Wartime shortages and forced labour caused widespread hardship, but the ban on the Dutch language strengthened the public use of Indonesian. Japanese-sponsored forces such as PETA and the Sumatran Giyugun trained tens of thousands of Indonesians. A day after the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, Japanese authorities permitted Indonesian leaders to begin preparing institutions and a constitution for an independent state planned for September 1945.

However, Japan surrendered to the Allies on 15 August 1945. Two days later, Sukarno proclaimed Indonesian independence, with Hatta co-signing the declaration. They were named president and vice-president on 18 August. Dutch attempts to restore colonial rule led to a four-year military and diplomatic struggle. International opposition to the Netherlands intensified after its offensive of December 1948, and the United States subsequently pressed the Dutch into negotiations recommended by the United Nations. On 27 December 1949, the Netherlands transferred sovereignty to the federal United States of Indonesia, except over western New Guinea. The federal states soon dissolved, and a unitary republic was proclaimed on 17 August 1950.

Sukarno era and Suharto's New Order

Main articles: Liberal democracy period in Indonesia, Guided Democracy in Indonesia, and New Order (Indonesia)

Sukarno (left) and Suharto (right), Indonesia's first two presidents

Indonesia adopted parliamentary government under the 1950 provisional constitution. The 1955 election produced no durable governing majority and did not end the persistent political crisis. In February 1958, dissidents in West Sumatra proclaimed its own government before being joined by rebels in Sulawesi. They were seeking reforms to the republic rather than separation, but were defeated by the central government. After the Constituent Assembly failed to secure the required majority for a permanent constitution, Sukarno dissolved it by decree in 1959 and restored the 1945 Constitution. This established the Guided Democracy, a system characterised by dominant presidential authority, less regional autonomy and reduced role for political parties.

Under this new system, Sukarno expanded the military's political role while supporting the growing PKI as a counterweight. His campaign against Dutch rule in western New Guinea led to the New York Agreement in 1962 and Indonesian administration of the territory in 1963. After the 30 September Movement killed six generals in 1965, army general Suharto's forces took control of Jakarta and the military presented the movement as a PKI coup. The ensuing anti-communist campaign spread across several regions, with army units working alongside or directing civilian groups. At least 500,000 people were killed and hundreds of thousands were detained. The campaign destroyed the PKI and shifted power to the army. The Supersemar order in 1966 gave Suharto de facto control over key executive and security powers, an effective transfer of power from Sukarno.

Suharto's New Order restricted political organisation, embedded the military in government, and used his political party Golkar and a tightly controlled party system to dominate elections. The Act of Free Choice in 1969 formally incorporated western New Guinea into Indonesia. However, just over a thousand selected community leaders took part in it amid reports of military intimidation. Many Papuans opposed this integration and have waged an armed resistance since then. In 1975, Indonesia invaded Portuguese Timor and annexed the territory the following year. In Aceh, Hasan di Tiro founded the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) in 1976 and declared independence from Indonesia. The insurgency was largely suppressed by 1979, but revived in 1989 after the return of fighters trained in Libya, prompting a decade-long military campaign.

The New Order reopened the economy to foreign capital and pursued industrialisation through investment, foreign aid, and state development plans. Manufacturing expanded and the number of people below the official poverty line fell substantially by the mid-1990s. At the same time, conglomerates connected to Suharto's family and close associates accumulated extensive wealth and power. The Asian financial crisis of 1997–98 caused a sharp economic downturn, followed by protests and unrest in several cities, including Jakarta, Medan, and Surakarta. This culminated in Suharto's resignation in May 1998. In a UN-supervised referendum in 1999, a majority of people in East Timor voted against remaining part Indonesia. East Timor later became an independent country in 2002.

Reformasi and contemporary Indonesia

Main article: Reform era in Indonesia

Damage following the earthquake and subsequent tsunami in Banda Aceh, January 2005

The period after Suharto, known as Reformasi in Indonesia, brought constitutional amendments, competitive elections, and decentralisation. The military lost its reserved parliamentary seats and the police became a separate service, but military influence did not disappear. Democratic institutions were established, but patronage and influence of oligarchy persisted. Former general Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono won the first direct presidential election in 2004. His administration reached a peace agreement with Aceh separatists in 2005 after the previous year's Indian Ocean tsunami brought more international attention to the province. Sporadic bombings occurred throughout the 2000s but had declined by the early 2010s.

Joko Widodo, popularly called Jokowi, was elected president in 2014 and prioritised infrastructure and economic development, which he linked to improving welfare. Indonesia remained an electoral democracy, but the quality of its democracy declined amid weakened parliamentary opposition and oversight, curbs on dissent, reduced independence of the anti-corruption commission, and Jokowi's intervention in the 2024 election. Under his successor Prabowo Subianto, the government pursued a fiscally expansive programme, and revised a military law in 2025, which allowed more active officers to serve in civilian posts.

Geography

Main articles: Geography of Indonesia and List of islands of Indonesia

Indonesia lies within one of the most tectonically active regions on Earth. Pictured above is Lake Toba in North Sumatra, the world's largest known Cenozoic caldera.

Indonesia is an equatorial archipelago of coastal plains, mountains, and volcanic islands. It lies between latitudes 11°S and 6°N and longitudes 95°E and 141°E, and is the world's largest archipelagic state, extending 5,120 kilometres (3,181 mi) from east to west and 1,760 kilometres (1,094 mi) from north to south. Several straits, including Malacca, Sunda, and Lombok, carry international traffic between the Indian and Pacific oceans, including ships transporting energy supplies and commercial cargo.

The number of Indonesian islands varies by counting method, with published figures ranging from 13,466 named islands to more than 17,500. About 922 of them are permanently inhabited. Its five main islands are Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, Borneo, and New Guinea. Indonesia occupies most of Borneo, where it is known as Kalimantan, and the western part of New Guinea, commonly called Papua. The remainder of those islands is shared with Brunei and Malaysia, and with Papua New Guinea, respectively.

Java accounts for less than 7% of Indonesia's land area but is its most populous island, with intensive farming and extensive urban growth. Forest cover also differs widely, with larger forested areas in Papua and Maluku than in Java and Bali. Indonesia's terrain includes high peaks, volcanic lakes, major rivers, and coastal plains. At 4,884 metres (16,024 ft), Puncak Jaya on New Guinea is Indonesia's highest peak, while Lake Toba on Sumatra is its largest lake. In Kalimantan, major waterways like the Kapuas, Barito, and Mahakam rivers have historically served as corridors for movement and trade between communities in the island's interior and those near the coast.

Indonesia occupies a complex plate-boundary zone where the Eurasian, India-Australia, and Pacific-Philippine sea tectonic plates interact, with subduction zones along these boundaries producing frequent earthquakes and volcanic activity. The resulting volcanic belt contains roughly 400 volcanoes, around 130 of which are considered active. This tectonic setting also exposes the archipelago to major earthquake and tsunami hazards. The Sumatra earthquake in 2004 generated a tsunami that caused widespread destruction in Aceh. The archipelago has also experienced eruptions of exceptional magnitude. No larger explosive event is known from the past 2.5 million years than the Toba super-eruption about 74,000 years ago, and the eruption of Tambora in 1815 was followed by global cooling and the Year Without a Summer in 1816.

Climate

Main articles: Climate of Indonesia and Climate change in Indonesia

Rain clouds over Indonesia during the monsoon season, observed by the Himawari-8 weather satellite in March 2020.

Indonesia's equatorial position and monsoon winds give it a tropical climate. Most lowland areas are warm and humid throughout the year, while higher terrain is cooler and seasonal temperature differences are small. Seasonal changes in the monsoon generally bring wetter conditions from November to April and drier conditions from May to October, but their timing and intensity vary by region. Much of the country has a tropical rainforest climate, with tropical monsoon and savanna climates across parts of the islands. Seasonal rainfall helps set rice-planting calendars and influences droughts, floods, and fires.

Rainfall varies across the archipelago. Western Sumatra, western Java, and portions of Kalimantan and Papua receive the highest annual rainfall, whereas regions in closer proximity to Australia—such as Nusa Tenggara—experience a significantly drier climate. The surrounding oceans, island geography, monsoon winds, and topography all affect where and when rain falls. In drought-prone regions of the country, El Niño can suppress rainfall and prolong dry periods, causing water shortages and crop losses.

Indonesia already faces climate-related hazards. Climate projections indicate further warming and sea-level rise, changes in rainfall patterns, and greater risks from extreme heat and flooding. These changes affect agriculture, water resources, public health, coastal settlements, and wildfire management. Sea-level rise is especially relevant to coastal areas, where much of Indonesia's population and infrastructure is located. Evidence from Pekalongan in Central Java suggests that households with fewer economic resources and communities with weaker infrastructure may have less capacity to adapt.

Biodiversity and conservation

Main articles: Fauna of Indonesia, Flora of Indonesia, Environment of Indonesia, and Conservation in Indonesia

See also: Protected areas of Indonesia, List of national parks of Indonesia, and List of biosphere reserves of Indonesia

The Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis) is one of Indonesia's officially designated national animals under a presidential decree in 1993.

Indonesia is among the 17 countries identified as megadiverse by Conservation International. Its many islands and geological past have helped produce a highly diverse flora and fauna. Within the archipelago, Wallacea is a transition zone between Asian and Australian fauna and one of the world's largest centres of endemism. In 2015, an estimated 83% of Southeast Asia's old-growth forest was in Indonesia. Mangrove forests, coral reefs and seagrass beds are among Indonesia's coastal ecosystems.

Large oil-palm and timber plantations were estimated to account for more than two-fifths of national deforestation between 2001 and 2016. Conversion of forest land for farming, roads, and other development breaks up remaining habitat, which affects species populations, habitat quality, and biodiversity. Peat-swamp forests are important carbon stores and habitat for threatened taxa, but are especially vulnerable to logging, fire and land conversion. In the ocean, coral diversity has been found lower on polluted or anchor-damaged reefs, and coral cover has declined sharply under extreme, prolonged ocean heat.

Indonesia has designated 554 protected areas covering 27 million hectares, equivalent to 14% of its land area. Assessments conducted in 2015, 2017 and 2019 found improved management scores, but identified poaching, illegal logging, human settlements, tourism and non-timber cultivation as the main threats to protected areas. In Papua, research around the Cyclops Mountains protected area found limited consultation with nearby communities and implementation problems linked to scarce resources.

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Indonesia

See also: Government of Indonesia

A presidential inauguration by the MPR in the Parliament Complex Jakarta, 2014

Indonesia is a unitary republic with a presidential system under the 1945 Constitution. The Constitution's five principles of Pancasila are taught through civic education. After the fall of the New Order in 1998, four constitutional amendments between 1999 and 2002 altered the political system by introducing direct presidential elections, establishing new state institutions, reducing the MPR's role, and giving regional autonomy a constitutional basis. Indonesia remained a unitary state, while decentralisation transferred substantial powers to the provinces, districts, and cities.

The president is head of state, head of government, and commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, and may serve no more than two five-year terms. The People's Consultative Assembly (MPR) consists of elected members of the House of Representatives (DPR) and the Regional Representative Council (DPD). The MPR may amend the constitution, inaugurates the president and vice president, and may dismiss them under constitutional procedures. The DPR makes laws with the president, approves the state budget, and oversees the government. The DPD may propose, review, and advise on bills concerning regional government, but has less authority than the DPR.

Indonesia's legal system belongs primarily to the civil-law tradition, while also incorporating customary (adat) law and Islamic law, including in marriage and inheritance matters for Muslims. Judicial power is exercised by the Supreme Court, the courts beneath it, and the Constitutional Court. The Supreme Court acts as the final appellate court and reviews regulations below statutes. The Constitutional Court reviews statutes for constitutionality, decides disputes over state-institution powers, political-party dissolution, and election results. It also has a role in presidential impeachment proceedings. The Religious Courts hear marriage, divorce and inheritance cases, as well as certain economic disputes arising under Islamic law. The Judicial Commission proposes candidates for Supreme Court justices and has responsibilities concerning judicial conduct.

Parties and elections

Main articles: List of political parties in Indonesia and Elections in Indonesia

Prabowo Subianto
President

Gibran Rakabuming Raka
Vice President

Since the return to competitive elections in 1999, Indonesia has had a fragmented multi-party system. No party has won a majority in legislative elections, and presidents have usually governed through broad coalitions that include many parties in the legislature and cabinet.

Political parties are often distinguished by their orientation toward secular nationalism or political Islam, but governing coalitions commonly include both. Party politics often relies more on patronage and elite power-sharing than detailed policy programmes, although the role of Islam in public life is a source of ideological difference. Opposition parties have at times joined presidential power-sharing arrangements after elections.

Indonesia held its first general election in 1955. Since 2004, voters have directly elected the president, the DPR, and the DPD every five years. Members of the DPR are elected through party-based contests, while DPD candidates run as individuals to represent provincial constituencies. National elections require large-scale logistics, as ballots and other materials must reach remote islands, mountain areas, and places with limited infrastructure.

Administrative divisions

Main article: Subdivisions of Indonesia

Indonesia is a unitary state divided into provinces, regencies, and cities, each with elected regional authorities regulated by law. Provinces are headed by governors and have provincial legislatures (DPRD). Regencies and cities are headed by regents and mayors and have local legislatures. Below regencies and cities are districts, which are divided into villages. Rural villages have self-governing status, while urban villages form part of district administration.

Regional autonomy after 1998 transferred substantial powers to subnational governments, including the provinces. Special arrangements apply to nine of them: Aceh may apply aspects of Islamic law, the six provinces in Papua have special autonomy, and Yogyakarta retains a hereditary sultanate. Jakarta has autonomy due to its role as the national capital. Since 2022, Nusantara in East Kalimantan has been planned as the future national capital.

Aceh

North
Sumatra

West
Sumatra

Riau

Riau
Islands

Bangka
Belitung

Jambi

South
Sumatra

Bengkulu

Lampung

Banten

Jakarta
↓

West
Java

Central
Java

↑
Yogyakarta

East
Java

Bali

West
Nusa
Tenggara

East Nusa
Tenggara

West
Kalimantan

Central
Kalimantan

North
Kalimantan

East
Kalimantan

South
Kalimantan

North
Sulawesi

North
Maluku

Central
Sulawesi

Gorontalo
↓

West
Sulawesi

South
Sulawesi

Southeast
Sulawesi

Maluku

Southwest
Papua

West
Papua

Central
Papua

Papua

Highland
Papua

South
Papua

Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Foreign relations of Indonesia and Indonesian National Armed Forces

Jakarta hosts the headquarters of ASEAN.

Indonesia follows an "independent and active" (bebas aktif) foreign policy, a doctrine formulated by Vice President Mohammad Hatta in 1948. The policy has emphasised non-alignment and independent action, along with a preference for diplomacy over military means in advancing regional objectives. As a middle power, Indonesia works through regional and multilateral institutions while preserving room to manoeuvre in its relations with major powers.

Indonesian Military Academy cadets

As a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Indonesia places the organisation at the centre of its regional diplomacy, including in managing relations with major powers. Indonesia has broad bilateral ties with Malaysia and Singapore, including cooperation in economic, defence, and cultural fields. Relations with Australia are conducted through a Comprehensive Strategic Partnership covering several areas, including economic development and regional stability. On China–United States competition, Indonesia has avoided alliances and taking sides, emphasised an ASEAN-led regional approach, and sought to limit escalation.

Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, apart from an absence in 1965–66. It participates in multilateral forums including the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and the East Asia Summit. After decades as a major recipient of foreign aid, Indonesia has been providing development assistance since 2015 and established a foreign aid agency in 2019. Since 1957, it has sent military and police personnel to UN peacekeeping missions.

The Indonesian National Armed Forces (TNI) consists of the Army, Navy, and Air Force. The Army's territorial units extend across provincial and regency/city areas. Until its termination in 2000, the military's "dual function" (dwifungsi) doctrine provided a basis for involvement in political affairs alongside its security role. By 2004, reforms had ended unelected military representation in Parliament and removed the military faction from the MPR. A 2024 study found that cooperative parliamentary oversight had helped stabilise civil–military relations but also slowed further reform and weakened democratic management of defence.

Law enforcement and human rights

Main articles: Indonesian National Police and Human rights in Indonesia

The May 1998 riots in Jakarta involved attacks on people and property that targeted Chinese Indonesians.

Law enforcement in Indonesia is primarily carried out by the Indonesian National Police (POLRI). The Chief of the Indonesian National Police is directly responsible to the President. POLRI's duties include maintaining public order and security, protecting and serving the public, and enforcing the law.

The National Commission on Human Rights (Komnas HAM) is Indonesia's national human-rights institution and is authorised to investigate human rights violations. Accountability for past abuses has been limited. In 2024, the United Nations Human Rights Committee noted that only 4 of 16 violations investigated by Komnas HAM had reached the courts. Indonesia practices the death penalty but has not executed anyone since 2016.

Anti-Chinese racism has persisted despite the removal of most discriminatory policies after the New Order. Since 2016, anti-LGBTQ campaigns have included hostile statements by public officials, police raids and proposals for criminal restrictions. Religious minorities have also been affected by the country's blasphemy law. In Papua, human rights monitors have reported extrajudicial killings and disappearances, restrictions on peaceful expression, and displacement due to security operations and armed conflict.

Economy

Main articles: Economy of Indonesia, Agriculture in Indonesia, Poverty in Indonesia, and Tourism in Indonesia

Jakarta is Indonesia's principal financial centre.

Palm oil plantation in Kampar Regency, Riau. Indonesia is the world's largest producer of palm oil.

Borobudur in Central Java, Indonesia's most visited tourist attraction

Indonesia has a mixed economy in which the private sector and the government both have large roles. It is the only G20 member state in Southeast Asia. In 2025, Indonesia's gross domestic product was Rp23.821 quadrillion (US$1.45 trillion) at current prices, making it Southeast Asia's largest economy and placing it among the world's top 20 by nominal GDP and top 10 by GDP at purchasing power parity. Services and industry account for the largest shares of gross domestic product, while agriculture remains a major source of employment.

The economy was once largely agricultural, and early post-independence policy centred on agricultural self-sufficiency. Shift towards industrial and urban growth gathered pace from the late 1960s, and sped up in the 1980s as lower oil prices pushed the economy toward manufactured exports. Export-oriented manufacturing expanded from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s, during a period of strong economic growth and declining poverty. The Asian financial crisis of 1997–98 caused a severe contraction, but growth resumed in 1999 and was followed by reforms to banking, fiscal policy and the exchange-rate regime.

Consumer spending makes up a large share of GDP, along with population growth, urbanisation and an expanding consuming class. Domestic demand helped soften the effect of the 2008 financial crisis, while exports, public consumption and private consumption contributed to recovery after the COVID-19 pandemic. The official poverty rate was about 8% in March 2026. Informal employment is widespread, particularly in agriculture and low-skilled services. Informal firms tend to have lower productivity and pay, and workers outside the bigger firms have more limited access to social insurance. Businesses also have to contend with infrastructure, regulatory and governance issues.

The country's many islands affect where economic activity takes place and how goods move across the country. Economic activity is concentrated on Java, with Jakarta in particular accounting for a disproportionate share of national output. Meanwhile, much of eastern Indonesia has weaker infrastructure and economies more dependent on agriculture. High domestic transport costs hinder production and investment outside Java and make it harder to connect producers in the outer islands with major markets.

Tourism is a major service industry, generating about US$14 billion in foreign-exchange earnings and recording 11.6 million international visitor arrivals in 2023. Tourism-related jobs and enterprises include accommodation, food services, passenger transport, travel agencies and other activities. International tourism is concentrated in Bali and other major gateways, while domestic travellers account for most tourism spending.

Indonesia spends little on research and development, with limited private-sector involvement and weak coordination in government. The government established the aircraft manufacturer later renamed Indonesian Aerospace in 1976 as part of an industrial-transformation strategy, beginning with licensed production before moving into joint aircraft development. The Palapa domestic satellite system extended communications to remote parts of Indonesia through a network of earth stations and was also used to distribute television and radio programmes.

Natural resources are economically important. Policies since 2020 have encouraged more processing of commodities at home, particularly nickel. Indonesia's exports include coal and petroleum gas, as well as palm oil, coffee and spices. Its main trading partners are mostly in Asia, with the United States also among the largest. Indonesia takes part in regional economic cooperation through ASEAN and APEC and is integrated into the wider global economy.

Infrastructure

Transport and connectivity

Main article: Transport in Indonesia

Whoosh is the first high-speed railway in Indonesia and Southeast Asia.

Road transport is the predominant mode in Indonesia. Reliance on cars and motorcycles is high because public transport in many cities has not kept pace with urban growth. Rail transport is concentrated on Java, but new lines have recently begun operating in South Sulawesi. The Jakarta–Bandung high-speed railway, the first of its kind in the region, began commercial operations in 2023.

Maritime and air networks are important for linking population centres across the country. Connectivity is weaker in eastern Indonesia, where higher logistics costs contribute to regional price differences. In the telecommunications sector, the Palapa Ring project uses terrestrial and submarine fibre as a core national internet network, but there are service gaps in some remote regions.

Energy

Main article: Energy in Indonesia

Sidrap wind farm, Indonesia's first wind power plant, in Sidrap Regency, South Sulawesi

In 2023, Indonesia produced nearly twice as much primary energy as it consumed, with coal dominating both primary energy production and electricity generation. The country exports large volumes of coal and LNG and imports substantial amounts of refined petroleum products. The state-owned electricity company, Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN), controls the country's transmission and distribution networks and purchases electricity from independent power producers for supply to the national grids. Renewables supplied a small amount of Indonesia's electricity in 2023, although the country ranked first globally in geothermal generation. Investment in renewable energy has been hindered by regulatory uncertainty and PLN's financial capacity.

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Indonesia and Indonesians

See also: List of Indonesian cities by population and List of metropolitan areas in Indonesia

A map of districts (kecamatan) coloured by population density, measured in people per square kilometre

Indonesia's 2020 census recorded 270.2 million people, making it the world's fourth most populous country after India, China and the United States. The population is concentrated on Java and in urban centres, while many provinces outside Java and Bali are much less densely populated. Java is home to 56.1% of the population, and its population density is far above the national average, reaching 1,171 people per square kilometre (3,030 people/mi²).

Indonesia has a median age of 30.7 years as of 2026, while about 69% of the population was aged 15–64 in 2025. Jakarta is the country's largest metropolitan area and, under the UN's harmonised urban definition, is listed as the world's most populous city, with nearly 42 million inhabitants as of 2025.

Approximately 59% of Indonesians lived in urban areas as of 2025. Urbanisation has come from rural-to-urban migration, natural increase in urban areas, and the reclassification of rural settlements. It has also expanded metropolitan regions, especially on Java, and increased demand for infrastructure, basic services, and city management. In addition, about 8 million Indonesians reside overseas, with large communities in Malaysia, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, and Taiwan.

Ethnic groups and languages

Main articles: Ethnic groups in Indonesia, Native Indonesians, and Languages of Indonesia

A map of ethnic groups in Indonesia

The 2010 census listed over 1,300 suku bangsa, or ethnic groups. A later study in 2015 reclassified them into about 600 groups after noting classification difficulties. Austronesian-speaking populations predominate in much of western and central Indonesia. Melanesian populations live mainly in the eastern islands, including parts of Nusa Tenggara, Maluku, and Papua. The Javanese are the largest ethnic group, making up about 40% of the population. Other major groups include the Sundanese, Malay, Batak, Madurese, Betawi, Minangkabau, and Bugis.

The official language, Indonesian, is a standardized variety of Malay based on the Riau-Johor literary tradition. Malay had long served as a lingua franca in the archipelago before Indonesian nationalists adopted it as a language of unity through the 1928 Youth Pledge. It gained official and formal status in 1945 under the name Bahasa Indonesia. Written in the Latin script, Indonesian has spread through education, government, and mass media, and serves as a common language across ethnic and regional boundaries.

More than 700 languages are spoken across the archipelago. They are divided into two major language groups, Austronesian and Papuan. Javanese is the most widely spoken local language and has official regional status in Yogyakarta. Several regional languages in Indonesia have traditional writing systems of their own, some of which survive in only limited use today. Local languages remain part of regional identity and cultural heritage, even as Indonesian dominates national public life. Dutch never became widely spoken as Malay was already the archipelago's lingua franca. However, it remains important in some legal contexts.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Indonesia

Baiturrahman Grand Mosque in Aceh. Northern Sumatra saw one of the earliest Islamic sultanates in Southeast Asia.

A Hindu prayer ceremony at Besakih Temple in Bali, Indonesia's only Hindu-majority province.

Indonesia recognises six religions: Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism, while the constitution guarantees freedom of religion. The state regulates religious affiliation and public worship. Recognised religions receive administrative recognition for religious affiliation, marriages, and houses of worship, but followers of indigenous religions often receive weaker recognition or face discrimination. Pancasila makes belief in one God one of the state ideology's five principles and is used to support national unity and religious harmony. Religious minorities still face discrimination, including through local religious bylaws, social pressure, and restrictions on worship.

Indonesia has more Muslims than any other country, with 251 million Muslims in 2025, or 87.15% of the population. Protestants and Catholics together made up 10.44% of the population, and Christians form majorities in several eastern provinces. Hindus accounted for 1.66% and are concentrated in Bali, while Buddhists accounted for 0.69% and are found mainly among Chinese Indonesians, though not exclusively.

Many local belief systems predate major world religions and continue alongside them. They include beliefs in ancestors, spirits, and powers associated with nature. Traditions such as Sunda Wiwitan, Kejawèn, and Kaharingan continue in different forms within or alongside the recognised religions. In Java and Bali, Islam and Hinduism also absorbed older customs and ritual practices.

Education

Main article: Education in Indonesia

University of Indonesia in Depok

Indonesia's education system includes more than 50 million students and over 250,000 schools. It is managed across ministries responsible for school education, higher education, and religious education, and follows a 6-3-3-4 structure: six years of elementary school, three years each of junior and senior secondary school, and four years of tertiary education.

Since independence, schools have supported national integration through Indonesian-language instruction, national curricula, and civic education. Access to education and school quality vary, particularly between urban and rural areas and among regions with differing levels of development. Teacher quality and distribution are also persistent issues. Student learning outcomes are also low by OECD benchmarks. In PISA 2022, Indonesian 15-year-olds performed below OECD averages in mathematics, reading and science, with most not reaching the minimum proficiency level in each subject.

Government spending on education accounted for approximately 1.3% of GDP in 2023. In 2022, Indonesia had 4,481 higher education institutions, including universities, Islamic institutions, service colleges, and open universities. The University of Indonesia, Gadjah Mada University, and the Bandung Institute of Technology are among the country's highest-ranked public universities in international rankings. Higher education has expanded since 1990 and contributes to better employment, but access, participation, and institutional quality are uneven.

Healthcare

Main article: Healthcare in Indonesia

Pondok Indah Hospital in South Jakarta

Primary care is provided mainly through community health centres (puskesmas) and primary-care hospitals. In 2014, Indonesia launched Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional (JKN), one of the world's largest single-payer health-insurance systems that covered 98% of the population by 2024. Despite the near-universal coverage, where people live still affects the availability of care and healthcare personnel.

Life expectancy increased between 1990 and 2019 from 62.5 to 69.4 years for men and from 65.7 to 73.5 years for women, but there are substantial differences between provinces. Indonesia faces a double burden of disease. Non-communicable conditions have become increasingly prominent in overall health loss, and infectious diseases continue to contribute substantially to disability and early mortality. Stunting prevalence among children was 21.6% in 2022.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Indonesia

See also: National Intangible Cultural Heritage of Indonesia and Public holidays in Indonesia

Indonesia's cultures differ across islands, languages, and communities. Older populations and later Austronesian migrations contributed to this diversity, with Papuan and Melanesian populations prominent in the east. Movement by sea placed the Indonesian archipelago within trading and migration networks involving Indian, Arab, Persian, Chinese, and mainland Southeast Asian peoples, followed later by Europeans. Religious and courtly influences entered through these routes, and European expansion ultimately brought colonial domination. Coastal commercial centres often encountered outside influences before they reached inland communities.

Indonesia has no single uniform cultural tradition. Regional traditions are tied to particular languages and local cultures, while pan-Indonesian forms generally use Indonesian and are intended for audiences across regional and ethnic boundaries. These traditions include performance, visual art, ritual, clothing, food, and literature. Modern popular culture includes cinema, television drama, music, celebrity media, and reality shows, along with imported Asian dramas and global formats adapted for Indonesian audiences.

Indonesia has 16 items on the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists, including wayang puppet theatre, batik, angklung, the saman dance, and pencak silat. Since 2024, joint nominations have added pantun, kebaya, and kolintang to the list.

Visual arts and architecture

Main articles: Indonesian art, Architecture of Indonesia, National costume of Indonesia, and Indonesian painting

An Indonesian batik

Indonesian visual arts include textiles, puppetry, masks, carving, and painting. Textiles are used in rituals and can convey social standing and ethnic affiliation. Colonial rule and nationalism affected the development of modern painting, and tourism and urban art communities became increasingly important later in the 20th century. Regional painting traditions include Bali's classical Kamasan tradition, a narrative form often described as wayang painting. Sculptural traditions range from megalithic monuments to Ngaju Dayak hampatong figures and Asmat artefacts, serving commemorative, protective, aesthetic, or spiritual functions.

Indonesian architecture ranges from everyday houses to ritual houses (rumah adat), whose layouts, posts, roofs, heirlooms, and construction rites can express ancestry, status, and local beliefs. Regional forms include the Javanese pendapa, Dayak longhouses, Minangkabau Rumah Gadang, and Toraja Tongkonan. Monumental religious architecture includes Borobudur and Prambanan, while surviving Hindu and Buddhist sculpture from the 8th to 15th centuries includes works in stone, bronze, and gold.

Clothing traditions differ by region and are used in ceremonies, weddings, formal occasions, and as markers of local identity. Batik and kebaya are widely used in national and formal dress and are especially prominent in Javanese culture. Other regional textile traditions include Minangkabau gold-thread textiles and distinctive ikat traditions among Batak and many eastern Indonesian communities. Such textiles are used at formal events, in bridal exchange, ceremonies, and weddings.

Performing arts

Main articles: Music of Indonesia, Dance in Indonesia, and Theatre of Indonesia

The Pandavas and Krishna in an act of the Wayang Wong performance

Indonesian music and dance include court, village, ritual, and popular forms. Gamelan traditions are centred especially in Java and Bali, while angklung and other bamboo ensembles are used in western Java, Banyumas, and other regions. Drums, gongs, lutes, singing, and music accompanying dance also appear across the archipelago. Islamic musical forms include gambus and qasida, while popular genres include keroncong and dangdut, which grew from Melayu music and draws on Indian, Arabic, and Western pop and rock elements.

Dance traditions are practiced for different purposes across regions. Mask dances appear in Javanese court drama and Balinese ritual performance, while Dayak mask dances are performed in agricultural rituals and communal ceremonial settings. Javanese court dance includes forms such as bedhaya and serimpi, while other local dances are associated with theatre and music, spirit possession, harvests, temple festivals, cremation ceremonies, and commemorations of the dead. Contemporary performers also adapt global forms.

Traditional Indonesian theatre encompasses storytelling, music, movement, puppetry, masks, acting, and dance. Wayang is a prominent puppet-theatre tradition in Java that is also practiced in Bali. Led by a dalang and accompanied by gamelan music, its repertory frequently reworks episodes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata. It has served ritual, moral, comic, political, and public-messaging functions. Other regional traditions combine drama with music, dance, masks, or martial arts, and modern theatre groups have used their performances for social and political commentary.

Literature

Main article: Indonesian literature

Cover of the 1937 issue of Poedjangga Baroe, an influential Indonesian literary magazine.

Literary traditions in Indonesia developed in many regional languages and included both oral and written forms. Oral traditions ranged from storytelling to songs, customs, beliefs, and other community forms, while material could pass between oral and written transmission. Traditional written literature included court chronicles, religious and legal writing, narrative prose, and verse. Such forms often served ethical, religious, or dynastic purposes rather than entertainment.

Modern Indonesian literature grew in the early 20th century alongside the expansion of literacy, publishing, and a wider reading public. Balai Pustaka, established in 1917, distributed books and maintained libraries and agencies across the archipelago, which gave new writers access to wider circulation. During this period, prose fiction and poetry became more prominent, displacing some older literary forms. From 1933, Pujangga Baru provided another venue for literary and cultural writing, publishing essays, poetry, short stories, and longer prose before the Japanese occupation. Newspapers, magazines, and other publications also carried Indonesian-language prose and poetry during the prewar period.

In the 1970s and 1980s, newspapers and magazines were important outlets for literature, with regular sections carrying poetry, short stories, criticism, and serial fiction. From the late 1990s, some forms of literary activity began to emerge in digital media, with websites, mailing lists, forums, and blogs providing spaces for literary communities and for publication. Post-1998 literary production has also faced fewer state restrictions, with writers able to engage more openly with previously sensitive subjects, such as sexuality and stronger religious expressions.

Cinema and mass media

Main articles: Cinema of Indonesia and Mass media in Indonesia

Suzzanna, an icon of Indonesian horror, a prominent genre in the country's cinema.

Indonesian film production began during the Dutch colonial era with Loetoeng Kasaroeng (1926), and a national film industry developed and expanded after independence. Film became a vehicle for nationalist and anti-colonial politics under Sukarno, while the New Order regulated and censored cinema. The domestic industry of the 1970s and 1980s declined sharply in the early 1990s. After 1998, independent filmmakers, film communities, festivals, and renewed commercial production helped revive Indonesian cinema. However, censorship and pressure from non-state actors still limited expression.

During the New Order, newspapers and broadcasters operated under licensing and censorship, and television was used to advance state-led development and a unified vision of national identity. In the Reformasi period, the 1999 Press Law prohibited censorship, publication bans, and licensing requirements but journalists and media organisations still face legal cases, political pressure, violence, and other forms of intimidation.

Internet use grew rapidly from the mid-1990s, and websites became another means of distributing news and information. Mainstream media increasingly uses the same reporting across television, print, and online outlets, either through integrated newsrooms or by sharing content between them. News is also shortened or reformatted for websites and social media.

Cuisine

Main article: Indonesian cuisine

Nasi padang with rendang, gulai, and vegetables, an example of Minangkabau cuisine

Indonesian cuisine differs from one region to another in its ingredients, methods, and flavours. Indian, Chinese, Middle Eastern, Portuguese, Dutch, and other foreign influences have become part of local cooking traditions.

Rice is the staple food in much of the country and is commonly served with meat or fish, vegetables, sambal, and other condiments. Chilli, coconut milk, shrimp paste, peanuts, garlic, shallots, and tamarind are widely used in cooking, along with foods such as chicken and seafood. Tempeh and tahu (tofu) are widely eaten soybean products. Tempeh originated in Java and is also eaten in Bali and elsewhere in Indonesia.

Mie and nasi goreng are widely eaten in the country. Gado-gado and sate are also prominent dishes. Regional cuisines include Minangkabau dishes such as rendang. Tumpeng is a Javanese ceremonial rice dish served for life-cycle events and other communal observances, where it is associated with gratitude and blessing.

Sports

Main articles: Sports in Indonesia and Indonesian martial arts

A demonstration of pencak silat, a form of martial arts

Popular sports in Indonesia include football, badminton, weightlifting, and basketball, along with local games and martial arts. Football is one of the country's most followed sports, with active club supporters and public screenings of matches. Indonesia was the first Asian representative to appear at the FIFA World Cup, taking part in the 1938 tournament as the Dutch East Indies.

Indonesia has been particularly successful in international badminton, winning both the Thomas and Uber Cups, the men's and women's world team championships. Most of Indonesia's Olympic medals have come from badminton and weightlifting. Indonesia first competed at the Olympics in 1952 and has participated in the Asian Games since the inaugural 1951 edition. Jakarta has hosted the Asian Games twice, first in 1962 and again in 2018 with Palembang.

Traditional sports and games are featured in ceremonies, harvest events, contests, and public entertainment. Examples include sepak takraw, bull racing (karapan sapi) in Madura, and ritual combat traditions such as caci in Flores and pasola in Sumba. Pencak silat is an Indonesian martial art and was included as an official event at the 2018 Asian Games, where Indonesia won all 14 gold medals contested in the sport.

See also

• List of Indonesia-related topics
• Outline of Indonesia

Notes and references

Sources

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Journal articles

• Aditia, R.; Szell, K. (2025). "Belonging matters: How context and inequalities shape student achievement in Indonesia". International Journal of Educational Research Open. 9 100512. doi:10.1016/j.ijedro.2025.100512.

• Al Qurtuby, S. (2017). "Arabs and "Indo-Arabs" in Indonesia: Historical Dynamics, Social Relations and Contemporary Changes". International Journal of Asia Pacific Studies. 13 (2): 45–72. doi:10.21315/ijaps2017.13.2.3.

• Ali, M. (2011). "Muslim diversity: Islam and local tradition in Java and Sulawesi, Indonesia". Indonesian Journal of Islam and Muslim Societies. 1 (1): 1–35. doi:10.18326/ijims.v1i1.1-35.

• Andréfouët, S.; Paul, M.; Farhan, A. Riza (2022). "Indonesia's 13558 islands: A new census from space and a first step towards a One Map for Small Islands Policy". Marine Policy. 135 104848. Bibcode:2022MarPo.13504848A. doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104848.

• Andriani, Nanda P.; Murtono, T. (2025). "Representation of Women in Indonesian Horror Movie Posters: From Victims to Iconic Mystical Figures". West Science Social and Humanities Studies. 3 (5): 726–737. doi:10.58812/wsshs.v3i05.1918.

• Anwar, D.F. (2018). "Indonesia's Vision of Regional Order in East Asia amid U.S.-China Rivalry". Asia Policy. 13 (2). National Bureau of Asian Research: 57–63. doi:10.1353/asp.2018.0024.

• Anwar, D.F. (2020). "Indonesia and the ASEAN outlook on the Indo-Pacific". International Affairs. 96 (1): 111–129. doi:10.1093/ia/iiz223.

• As-syakur, A.R.; et al. (2013). "Indonesian rainfall variability observation using TRMM multi-satellite data". International Journal of Remote Sensing. 34 (21). Taylor & Francis Online: 7723–7738. Bibcode:2013IJRS...34.7723A. doi:10.1080/01431161.2013.826837.

• Austin, K.G.; Schwantes, A.; Gu, Y.; Kasibhatla, P.D. (2019). "What causes deforestation in Indonesia?". Environmental Research Letters. 14 (2) 024007. Bibcode:2019ERL....14b4007A. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/aaf6db.

• Aziz, Q. (1955). "Indonesia's First General Elections". Pakistan Horizon. 8 (3): 400–405. JSTOR 41403764.

• Baier, M. (2007). "The Development of the Hindu Kaharingan Religion: A New Dayak Religion in Central Kalimantan". Anthropos. 102 (2): 566–570. doi:10.5771/0257-9774-2007-2-566. JSTOR 40389742.

• Baird, N. (2025). "The Universal Periodic Review and West Papua: Beyond Invisibility?". International Journal on Minority and Group Rights. 32 (1): 24–60. doi:10.1163/15718115-bja10158.

• Barnes, P.A.; et al. (2023). "The gap between policy and practice for human rights in conservation: a case study in Papua Province, Indonesia". Oryx. 57 (3): 360–369. doi:10.1017/S0030605323000066.

• Brumm, A.; Jensen, G.M.; van den Bergh, G.D.; Morwood, M.J.; Kurniawan, I.; Aziz, F.; Storey, M. (2010). "Hominins on Flores, Indonesia, by one million years ago". Nature. 464 (7289): 748–752. Bibcode:2010Natur.464..748B. doi:10.1038/nature08844. PMID 20237472.

• Butt, S. (2010). "Regional Autonomy and Legal Disorder: The Proliferation of Local Laws in Indonesia". Singapore Journal of Legal Studies: 1–21. JSTOR 24870542.

• Butt, S.; Bisariyadi; Siregar, F. (2026). "International Law in the Indonesian Constitutional Court: A Typology of Use". Asian Journal of International Law. 16 (1). Cambridge University Press: 105–126. doi:10.1017/S204425132510074X. Retrieved 3 September 2026.

• Cammack, M.; Feener, R. Michael (2012). "The Islamic Legal System in Indonesia". Pacific Rim Law & Policy Journal. 21 (1): 13–42. Retrieved 22 August 2026.

• Campbell, S. (2014). "Kamasan Art in Museum Collections: 'Entangled' Histories of Art Collecting in Bali". Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. 170. Brill: 250–280. doi:10.1163/22134379-17002001.

• Chauvel, R. (2021). "West Papua: Indonesia's last regional conflict". Small Wars & Insurgencies. 32 (6): 913–944. doi:10.1080/09592318.2021.1990491.

• Chowdhury, A.; Sugema, I. (2005). "How Significant and Effective has Foreign Aid to Indonesia been?". ASEAN Economic Bulletin. 22 (2): 186–216. doi:10.1355/AE22-2D. JSTOR 25773853.

• Cribb, R. (2002). "Unresolved Problems in the Indonesian Killings of 1965–1966". Asian Survey. 42 (4): 550–563. doi:10.1525/as.2002.42.4.550.

• Cummins, P.R. (2017). "Geohazards in Indonesia: Earth science for disaster risk reduction – introduction". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 441 (1). The Geological Society of London: 1–7. Bibcode:2017GSLSP.441....1C. doi:10.1144/SP441.11.

• Dagg, Christopher J. (2007). "The 2004 elections in Indonesia: Political reform and democratisation". Asia Pacific Viewpoint. 48 (1): 47–59. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8373.2007.00329.x.

• Dahlan, A.F.; Adi, I.R. (2025). "Ideology, Values and Norms in Hip-hop Community Wijilan Yogyakarta: An Ethnographic Study". Rubikon: Journal of Transnational American Studies. 12 (1). Gadjah Mada University: 57–85. doi:10.22146/rubikon.v12i1.101571.

• Dávid, L.D; Rahmat, A.F; Priatmoko, S. (2024). "Main trends in the tourism industry in Indonesia between 2020–2023". Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development. 8 (11) 8162. EnPress Publisher, LLC. doi:10.24294/jipd.v8i11.8162.

• Dewantara, J.A. (2019). "Pancasila as Ideology and Characteristics Civic Education in Indonesia". International Journal for Educational and Vocational Studies. 1 (5): 400–405. doi:10.29103/ijevs.v1i5.1617.

• Earl, G.W. (1850). Logan, J.R. (ed.). "On the Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian, and Malayu-Polynesian Nations". The Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia. IV: 1–10, 66–74, 172–181. Retrieved 5 October 2006 – via Internet Archive.

• Edinger, E.N.; et al. (1998). "Reef degradation and coral biodiversity in indonesia: Effects of land-based pollution, destructive fishing practices and changes over time". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 36 (8): 617–630. Bibcode:1998MarPB..36..617E. doi:10.1016/S0025-326X(98)00047-2.

• Emilianus, J.E.; Lumbuun, T.G.; Latif, A.; Sinaga, P. (2024). "Protection of local wisdom of papua's original people by the papua people's assembly in Indonesia". International Journal of Judicial Law. 3 (4): 10–15. doi:10.54660/IJJL.2024.3.4.10-15.

• Erviana, H.Y.; et al. (2024). "Election Logistics Distribution Strategy in Indonesia: A Literature Review". International Journal of Integrative Sciences. 3 (12). Formosa Publisher: 1375–1386. Retrieved 4 November 2025.

• Estoque, R.C.; Ooba, M.; Avitabile, V.; Hijioka, Y.; DasGupta, R.; Togawa, T.; Murayama, Y. (2019). "The future of Southeast Asia's forests". Nature Communications. 10 (1) 1829. Bibcode:2019NatCo..10.1829E. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-09646-4. PMC 6478739. PMID 31015425.

• Farid, H. (2005). "Indonesia's original sin: mass killings and capitalist expansion, 1965–66". Inter-Asia Cultural Studies. 6 (1): 3–16. doi:10.1080/1462394042000326879.

• Fossati, D. (2019). "The Resurgence of Ideology in Indonesia: Political Islam, Aliran and Political Behaviour". Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs. 38 (2): 119–148. doi:10.1177/1868103419868400.

• Fossati, D.; et al. (2020). "Ideological representation in clientelistic democracies: The Indonesian case". Electoral Studies. 63 102111. doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2019.102111. hdl:1885/222102.

• Fukuoka, Y. (2014). "Debating Indonesia's Reformasi: Bridging "Parallel Universes"". Journal of Contemporary Asia. 44 (3): 540–552. doi:10.1080/00472336.2014.895026.

• Ge, Y.; Gao, X. (2020). "Understanding the overestimated impact of the Toba volcanic super-eruption on global environments and ancient hominins". Quaternary International. 559: 24–33. Bibcode:2020QuInt.559...24G. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2020.06.021.

• Gertisser, R.; Self, S. (2015). "The great 1815 eruption of Tambora and future risks from large-scale volcanism". Geology Today. 31 (4): 132–136. Bibcode:2015GeolT..31..132G. doi:10.1111/gto.12099.

• Głąb, K.M. (2020). "The Culture of Pancasila: An Indonesian concept that fuses the impossible". Acta Asiatica Varsoviensia (33). Polish Academy of Sciences: 5–22. Retrieved 8 May 2025.

• Gunawan, H.; et al. (2024). "A review of forest fragmentation in Indonesia under the DPSIR framework for biodiversity conservation strategies". Global Ecology and Conservation. 51 e02918. Bibcode:2024GEcoC..5102918G. doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2024.e02918.

• Harijanti, Susi D.; Lindsey, T. (2006). "Indonesia: General elections test the amended Constitution and the new Constitutional Court". International Journal of Constitutional Law. 4 (1): 138–150. doi:10.1093/icon/moi055.

• Hatley, B. (2008). "Indonesian Theatre Ten Years after Reformasi". Journal of Indonesian Social Sciences and Humanities. 1: 53–72. Retrieved 2 September 2026.

• Hidayat, A.; et al. (2020). "Eruption on Indonesia's volcanic islands: a review of potential hazards, fatalities, and management". IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 485 (1) 012061. IOP Publishing Ltd. Bibcode:2020E&ES..485a2061H. doi:10.1088/1755-1315/485/1/012061.

• Himawan, E.M.; et al. (2022). "Indonesian Civilians' Attributions for Anti-Chinese Violence During the May 1998 Riots in Indonesia". Journal of Social and Political Psychology. 10 (2): 536–553. doi:10.5964/jspp.5489.

• de Hontheim, A. (2010). "Imagination behind Shape: The Invisible Content of Asmat Artefacts". Anthropological Forum. 20 (3): 235–249. doi:10.1080/00664677.2010.515292.

• Hutomo, M.; Moosa, M.K. (2005). "Indonesian marine and coastal biodiversity: Present status" (PDF). Indian Journal of Marine Sciences. 34 (1): 88–97. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 June 2025. Retrieved 6 May 2026.

• Jati, Ignasius R.A.P. (2014). "Local wisdom behind Tumpeng as an icon of Indonesian traditional cuisine". Nutrition & Food Science. 44 (4). Emerald Publishing: 324–334. doi:10.1108/NFS-11-2013-0141.

• Karuniasa, M.; Pambudi, P.A. (2022). "The analysis of the El Niño phenomenon in the East Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia". Journal of Water and Land Development (52). Polish Academy of Sciences: 180–185. doi:10.24425/jwld.2022.140388.

• de Koninck, R.; Hai, P.T. (2025). "Coping with density: reflections on Java (1960-2010)". Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography. 46 (3). Wiley Online Library: 371–385. Bibcode:2025SJTG...46..371D. doi:10.1111/sjtg.70025.

• Koulakov, I.; et al. (2009). "P, S velocity and VP/VS ratio beneath the Toba caldera complex (Northern Sumatra) from local earthquake tomography". Geophysical Journal International. 177 (3): 1121–1139. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2009.04114.x.

• van der Kroef, J.M. (1951). "The Term Indonesia: Its Origin and Usage". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 71 (3): 166–171. doi:10.2307/595186. JSTOR 595186.

• Kusumaryati, V. (2021). "#Papuanlivesmatter: black consciousness and political movements in West Papua". Critical Asian Studies. 53 (4): 453–475. doi:10.1080/14672715.2021.1963794.

• Legge, John D. (1968). "General Suharto's New Order". International Affairs. 44 (1): 40–47. doi:10.2307/2613527. JSTOR 2613527.

• Lis, M. (2019). "The Art of Wayang". Art of the Orient. 8: 137–150. doi:10.11588/ao.2019.0.10636.

• Logan, J.R. (1850). "The Ethnology of the Indian Archipelago: Embracing Enquiries into the Continental Relations of the Indo-Pacific Islanders". Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia. 4: 254–347. Retrieved 6 June 2026.

• Lubis, M.S.; Susanto, D.; Harjoko, T.Y. (2021). "Understanding Riverine Urbanism in Kalimantan through Diachronic Approach: Case Study of Lanting Settlements in Sintang, Indonesia". Journal of Architectural Design and Urbanism. 4 (1). ISOMAse: 12–26. doi:10.14710/jadu.v4i1.12133.

• Maiullari, M. (2004). "Hampatongs in the Daily Life of the Ngaju Dayaks" (PDF). Borneo Research Bulletin. 35. Borneo Research Council: 102–120. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 June 2026. Retrieved 3 June 2026.

• Manguin, P-Y. (2021). "Srivijaya: Trade and Connectivity in the Pre-modern Malay World". Journal of Urban Archaeology. 3. Brepols Online: 87–100. doi:10.1484/J.JUA.5.123677.

• Mardiansjah, F.H.; et al. (2021). "New Patterns of Urbanization in Indonesia: Emergence of Non-statutory Towns and New Extended Urban Regions". Journal of Urban and Regional Analysis. 12 (1): 11–26. Bibcode:2021EnUrA..12...11M. doi:10.1177/0975425321990384.

• Mardiansjah, F.H.; et al. (2023). "Analyzing Urban Population Growth in the Towns of Non-urban Regions in Java, Indonesia, Using Spatial Analysis". IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 1264 (1) 012012. IOP Publishing Ltd. Bibcode:2023E&ES.1264a2012M. doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1264/1/012012.

• Marshall, P. (2018). "The Ambiguities of Religious Freedom in Indonesia". The Review of Faith & International Affairs. 16 (1): 85–96. doi:10.1080/15570274.2018.1433588.

• Mboi, N.; et al. (2022). "The state of health in Indonesia's provinces, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019". The Lancet Global Health. 10 (11): e1632–e1645. doi:10.1016/S2214-109X(22)00371-0. PMC 9579357. PMID 36240829.

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• Mietzner, M. (2025). "Flirting with Autocracy in Indonesia: Jokowi's Majoritarianism and its Democratic Legacy". Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs. 44 (3): 366–384. doi:10.1177/18681034251318053.

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• Muammar, E. (2025). "Stagnation of Achievements of Indonesian Athletes at the International Level". Journal Research of Social Science, Economics, and Management. 4 (9). Publikasi Indonesia: 1099–1114. doi:10.59141/jrssem.v4i9.813.

• Mukminin, A.; Habibi, A.; Prasojo, Lantip D.; Idi, A.; Hamidah, A. (2019). "Curriculum Reform in Indonesia: Moving from an Exclusive to Inclusive Curriculum". Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal. 9 (2): 53–72. doi:10.26529/cepsj.543.

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• Ng, J.; Kurniawan, Y. (2024). "The Parliament and Cooperative Oversight of the Indonesian Armed Forces: Why Civil–Military Relations in Indonesia is Stable but Still in Transition". Armed Forces & Society. 50 (3): 683–709. doi:10.1177/0095327X221137281.

• Nugraha, R.T.; et al. (2024). "Evaluating the effectiveness of protected area management in Indonesia". Oryx. 58 (4). Cambridge University Press: 474–484. doi:10.1017/S003060532300145X.

• Nugroho, A.; Amir, H.; Maududy, I.; Marlina, I. (2021). "Poverty eradication programs in Indonesia: Progress, challenges and reforms". Journal of Policy Modeling. 43 (6): 1204–1224. doi:10.1016/j.jpolmod.2021.05.002.

• Oh, C. (2024). "Authenticities of K-pop Cover Dance Influencers in/from Bali, Indonesia". Dance Chronicle. 47 (3). Taylor & Francis Online: 407–432. doi:10.1080/01472526.2024.2384976.

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• Wiszowaty, M.M.; Wahyuni, I. (2023). "Monarchy in the Republic – Sultanate of Yogyakarta in the Republic of Indonesia". Constitutional Law Review. 76 (6). Adam Marszałek Publishing House: 321–336. doi:10.15804/ppk.2023.06.23.

• Yabuki, S. (2024). "Professionalism of the Indonesian Armed Forces: New, Old, or Hybrid Professionalism?". Jurnal Wacana Politik. 9 (2): 169–176. doi:10.24198/jwp.v9i2.53960.

• Yampolsky, P. (1995). "Forces for Change in the Regional Performing Arts of Indonesia". Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. 151 (4): 700–725. doi:10.1163/22134379-90003035.

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• Zaini, A.Z.A.; Vonnisa, M.; Marzuki, M.; Ramadhan, R. (2023). "Seasonal Variation of Rainfall in Indonesia under Normal Conditions without ENSO and IOD Events from 1981-2021". Journal of Research in Science Education. 9 (11). Postgraduate University of Mataram: 9899–9909. doi:10.29303/jppipa.v9i11.4569.

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Reports and studies

• Ablaza, C.; et al. (November 2023). Indonesia's Informal Economy: Measurement, Evidence, and a Research Agenda (PDF) (Report). Policy Research Working Paper. World Bank. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 May 2024. Retrieved 29 May 2026.

• ADB (November 2018). Republic of Indonesia: Advanced Knowledge and Skills for Sustainable Growth Project (Report). Manila: Asian Development Bank. Retrieved 1 September 2026.

• Aji, A.F.; et al. (2022). One Country, 700+ Languages: NLP Challenges for Underrepresented Languages and Dialects in Indonesia. Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL). Dublin: Association for Computational Linguistics. pp. 7226–7249. doi:10.18653/v1/2022.acl-long.500.

• Akhmadi; Rahmitha; Wahyu, Yudi F.M. (November 2012). Impact of Climate Change on Households in the Indonesian CBMS Area (PDF) (Report). The SMERU Research Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 March 2017. Retrieved 28 April 2026.

• Unfinished Business: Police Accountability in Indonesia (Report). Amnesty International. 24 June 2009. Retrieved 3 September 2026.

• Austin, Peter K. (2014). Aksara Sasak, an Endangered Script and Scribal Practice (PDF). International Workshop on Endangered Scripts of Island Southeast Asia. Tokyo: Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. Retrieved 3 September 2026.

• Azis, A.A.; Satriawangsa, Baiq N.R. (2024). "From Recipient to Donor: Indonesia's Motives in Giving Foreign Aid to South Pacific 2015-2023". Proceedings of the World Conference on Governance and Social Sciences (WCGSS 2023). Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research. Vol. 843. Atlantis Press. pp. 49–63. doi:10.2991/978-2-38476-236-1_7. ISBN 978-2-38476-235-4.

• Barron, P.; Rahman, E.; Nugroho, K. (7 October 2013). The Case of Aceh, Indonesia (PDF) (Report). The Contested Corners of Asia. The Asia Foundation. ISBN 978-616-91408-1-8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 October 2021. Retrieved 29 May 2026.

• Basri, M.C.; Rahardja, S. (2011). "Mild Crisis, Half Hearted Fiscal Stimulus: Indonesia During the GFC". In Ito, T.; Parulian, F. (eds.). Assessment on the Impact of Stimulus, Fiscal Transparency and Fiscal Risk (PDF). ERIA Research Project Report. Vol. 2010–01. Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia. pp. 169–211. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 December 2022. Retrieved 29 May 2026.

• Case, M.; Ardiansyah, F.; Spector, E. (14 November 2007). Climate Change in Indonesia: Implications for Humans and Nature (PDF) (Report). WWF. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 February 2018. Retrieved 18 November 2018.

• EIA (25 August 2025). Country Analysis Brief: Indonesia (PDF) (Report). U.S. Energy Information Administration. Retrieved 26 August 2026.

• Elias, S.; Noone, C. (December 2011). "The Growth and Development of the Indonesian Economy" (PDF). Reserve Bank of Australia. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 December 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2016.

• Fionna, U.; Tomsa, D. (2017). Parties and Factions in Indonesia: The Effects of Historical Legacies and Institutional Engineering (PDF) (Report). ISEAS Working Paper Series. Singapore: ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 August 2024. Retrieved 29 May 2026.

• Goldstein, A.; et al. (2024). OECD Economic Surveys: Indonesia (PDF) (Report). OECD. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 November 2024. Retrieved 25 April 2026.

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• IEA (17 July 2020). Attracting private investment to fund sustainable recoveries: The case of Indonesia's power sector (PDF) (Report). International Energy Agency. Retrieved 3 September 2026.

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• ITU (1994). Part II – Integrated Rural Development Through Telecommunications Development Initiatives. World Telecommunication Development Conference (WTDC-94). Buenos Aires, Argentina: International Telecommunication Union. Retrieved 3 September 2026.

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• OECD (18 March 2021). OECD Economic Surveys: Indonesia 2021 (Report). OECD Economic Surveys: Indonesia. Paris: OECD Publishing. doi:10.1787/fd7e6249-en. ISBN 978-92-64-63503-6. Retrieved 1 September 2026.

• OECD (2022). OECD Tourism Trends and Policies 2022 (PDF) (Report). OECD. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 July 2024. Retrieved 29 May 2026.

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• "Indonesia transitions to EVs, builds ports and expands airports". Oxford Business Group. 2024. Archived from the original on 8 February 2026. Retrieved 25 April 2026.

• Pacheco, P.; Gnych, S.; Dermawan, A.; Komarudin, H.; Okarda, B. (2017). The Palm Oil Global Value Chain: Implications for Economic Growth and Social and Environmental Sustainability (Report). Working Paper. Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR). doi:10.17528/cifor/006405.

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• Steenhuis, H-J.; de Bruijn, E.J. (April 2004). "High Technology in Developing Countries: Analysis of Technology Strategy, Technology Transfer, and Success Factors in the Aircraft Industry". New Directions in Technology Management: Changing Collaboration Between Government, Industry and University. 13th International Conference on Management of Technology (IAMOT). Washington, D.C.: International Association for the Management of Technology. Archived from the original on 6 January 2026. Retrieved 25 December 2025.

• Suryanta, B. (2021). Indonesia's Integration into the Regional and Global Economies (PhD thesis). Australian National University. doi:10.25911/5M6D-AZ37.

• Syarief, S. (18 April 2024). Indonesian Mainstream Media in the Digital Age: Corporate Convergence, Low-quality News and Staff Exploitation (Report). ISEAS Perspective. ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute. Retrieved 27 August 2026.

• Syukri, M. (2021). Participatory Governance in the New Developmental State: Assessing Its Efficacy for Marginal Groups in Indonesia (PhD thesis). The University of Western Australia. doi:10.26182/qt3z-zx90.

• Tejasmara, Aas (2023). Faharuddin; Rahmawati, M.; Setiawan, E.; Asikin, M. (eds.). Indonesian Population Report 2023 (PDF) (Report). The National Population and Family Planning Board (BKKBN). Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 June 2026. Retrieved 27 April 2026.

• Titiheruw, Ira S.; Atje, R. (2008). Managing Capital Flows: The Case of Indonesia (PDF) (Report). ADBI Discussion Paper. Tokyo: Asian Development Bank Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 July 2022. Retrieved 29 May 2026.

• UNIDO Office for Independent Evaluation (May 2015). Independent UNIDO Country Evaluation: The Republic of Indonesia (PDF) (Report). Vienna: United Nations Industrial Development Organization. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 December 2024. Retrieved 29 May 2026.

• World Urbanization Prospects 2025: Summary of Results (PDF). Department of Economic and Social Affairs - Population Division (Report). New York: United Nations. 2025. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 May 2026. Retrieved 1 June 2026.

• United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (July 2024). World Population Prospects 2024: Summary of Results (PDF) (Report). United Nations. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 January 2025. Retrieved 23 August 2026.

• Human Development Report 2025 (PDF) (Report). United Nations Development Programme. 6 May 2025. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 May 2025. Retrieved 6 May 2025.

• United Nations Human Rights Committee (3 May 2024). Concluding observations on the second periodic report of Indonesia (Report). United Nations. Retrieved 11 September 2026.

• Wiratraman, H.P. (11 December 2014). Press freedom, law and politics in Indonesia: a socio-legal study (PhD thesis). Leiden University. hdl:1887/30106. ISBN 978-94-6203-733-5.

• World Bank (May 2015). Improving Indonesia's Freight Logistics System: A Plan of Action (PDF) (Report). Jakarta: World Bank. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 July 2021. Retrieved 29 May 2026.

• World Bank (June 2020). Indonesia: Systematic Country Diagnostic Update (PDF) (Report). World Bank. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 September 2023. Retrieved 29 May 2026.

• World Bank (June 2022). Indonesia Economic Prospects: Financial Deepening for Stronger Growth and Sustainable Recovery (PDF) (Report). World Bank. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 May 2026. Retrieved 29 May 2026.

• World Bank (June 2024). Indonesia Economic Prospects, June 2024: Unleashing Indonesia's Business Potential (PDF) (Report). World Bank. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 August 2024. Retrieved 29 May 2026.

• Climate Risk Profile: Indonesia (2021) (PDF). Climate Change Knowledge Portal (Report). The World Bank Group and Asian Development Bank. 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 May 2021. Retrieved 5 August 2025.

• Zen, F.; Yudhistira, M.H., eds. (March 2022). Maritime Highway and Eastern Indonesia Development (PDF). ERIA Research Project Report (Report). Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia (ERIA). Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 June 2026. Retrieved 29 May 2026.

News and media

• Harris, G. (4 July 2024). "Oldest example of figurative art found in Indonesian cave". The Art Newspaper. Archived from the original on 4 July 2024. Retrieved 5 July 2024.

• "Indonesia massacres: Declassified US files shed new light". BBC. 17 October 2017. Archived from the original on 18 November 2017. Retrieved 19 September 2018.

• Suprajitno, S. (10 October 2011). "Negotiating the Cultural and the Religious: The Recasting of the Chinese Indonesian Buddhist". BiblioAsia. Archived from the original on 2 June 2026. Retrieved 1 June 2026.

• "East Timor celebrates becoming a nation". The Guardian. 20 May 2002. Archived from the original on 26 August 2013. Retrieved 25 July 2026.

• "Jokowi inaugurates first Indonesian wind farm in Sulawesi". The Jakarta Post. 2 July 2018. Archived from the original on 1 August 2026. Retrieved 25 July 2026.

• Pranata, G.; Priyambodo, U. (20 June 2024). "Berkat Soewardi, Nama Indonesia Bermula di Den Haag Sejak 1918" [Thanks to Soewardi, the Name 'Indonesia' Took Root in The Hague in 1918] (in Indonesian). National Geographic Indonesia. Archived from the original on 20 June 2024. Retrieved 27 November 2025.

• Gutierrez, N. (22 August 2016). "What happened when Indonesia 'withdrew' from the United Nations". Rappler. Archived from the original on 29 August 2016. Retrieved 8 September 2018.

• Sood, A. (14 October 2024). "Joko Widodo's mixed legacy: infrastructure triumphs and democratic concerns". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 28 August 2026.

• "Ditjen Dukcapil Kemendagri Rilis Data Kependudukan Bersih" [Ministry of Home Affairs' Directorate General of Population and Civil Registration Releases Clean Population Data]. Tempo (in Indonesian). 13 March 2026. Archived from the original on 14 March 2026. Retrieved 13 March 2026.

• "Keragaman Beragama Indonesia di Data Kependudukan Kemendagri" [Religious Diversity in Indonesia According to Ministry of Home Affairs Population Data] (in Indonesian). Tempo. 13 March 2026. Archived from the original on 14 March 2026. Retrieved 7 June 2026.

Official and institutional sources

• "Eksekusi mati tingkat global mencapai angka tertinggi, Indonesia terus jatuhkan hukuman mati" [Global executions hit record high as Indonesia continues to hand down death sentences] (in Indonesian). Amnesty International Indonesia. 18 May 2026. Retrieved 11 September 2026.

• "Agreement on the Establishment of the ASEAN Secretariat". ASEAN. 24 February 1976. Retrieved 9 September 2026.

• "Peraturan Kepolisian Negara Republik Indonesia Nomor 3 Tahun 2024 tentang Perubahan atas Peraturan Kepolisian Negara Republik Indonesia Nomor 14 Tahun 2018 tentang Susunan Organisasi dan Tata Kerja Kepolisian Daerah" [Regulation of the Indonesian National Police Number 3 of 2024 concerning Amendments to Regulation of the Indonesian National Police Number 14 of 2018 concerning the Organisational Structure and Working Procedures of Regional Police Forces]. Audit Board of Indonesia Legal Documentation and Information Network (JDIH) – Regulations Database (in Indonesian). Audit Board of Indonesia. Archived from the original on 18 May 2026. Retrieved 23 April 2026.

• "Undang-undang (UU) Nomor 3 Tahun 2022 tentang Ibu Kota Negara" [Law Number 3 of 2022 concerning the National Capital]. Audit Board of Indonesia Legal Documentation and Information Network (JDIH) – Regulations Database (in Indonesian). Audit Board of Indonesia. Archived from the original on 7 October 2024. Retrieved 15 April 2026.

• "Plan of Action for the Indonesia-Australia Comprehensive Strategic Partnership (2025–2029)". Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. 15 May 2025. Retrieved 22 August 2026.

• "The Historic Journey of the Thomas Cup & Uber Cup". BWF Badminton. Archived from the original on 19 June 2025. Retrieved 21 July 2025.

• "Indonesia Sweeps Pencak Silat Gold Medals at Asian Games". Cabinet Secretariat of the Republic of Indonesia. 30 August 2018. Archived from the original on 23 April 2025. Retrieved 6 May 2026.

• "Indonesia - Country Profile". Convention on Biological Diversity. Archived from the original on 19 May 2025. Retrieved 23 July 2025.

• "Indonesia at the 1938 FIFA World Cup". FIFA. 20 November 2025. Archived from the original on 7 December 2025. Retrieved 6 May 2026.

• "G20 Members". G20. Archived from the original on 10 February 2015. Retrieved 20 January 2025.

• Peraturan Daerah (Perda) Provinsi Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta Nomor 2 Tahun 2021 tentang Pemeliharaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa, Sastra, dan Aksara Jawa [Regional Regulation of the Province of the Special Region of Yogyakarta Number 2 of 2021 concerning the Preservation and Development of the Javanese Language, Literature, and Script] (Regional Regulation 2) (in Indonesian). Governor of Special Region of Yogyakarta. 2021. Retrieved 19 March 2021.

• Rosita, L. (1 April 2021). "Menilik Kompetisi Politik 2024" [Examining the 2024 Political Competition]. Komisi Pemilihan Umum Republik Indonesia (in Indonesian). Retrieved 31 August 2026.

• "Helsinki 1952". Indonesian Olympic Committee. Retrieved 27 August 2026.

• "Memahami Perbedaan Data Penduduk Jakarta: Data PBB vs Data Dukcapil" [Understanding the Difference in Jakarta Population Data: UN Data vs. Population and Civil Registration Data] (in Indonesian). Jakarta Population and Civil Registration Office. 27 November 2025. Archived from the original on 29 March 2026. Retrieved 29 March 2026.

• "Bahasa dan Peta Bahasa di Indonesia" [Languages and Language Maps in Indonesia] (in Indonesian). Ministry of Education and Culture (Kemdikbud). Archived from the original on 3 January 2026. Retrieved 18 August 2024.

• "Indonesia's Foreign Policy". Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia in Washington, D.C. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia. Retrieved 31 August 2026.

• "State Visit by the President of the Republic of Indonesia to Malaysia 27 January 2025". Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Malaysia. 26 January 2025. Retrieved 22 August 2026.

• "Indonesia". Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Singapore. Retrieved 22 August 2026.

• The 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia (PDF) (Report). Ministry of Law and Human Rights of the Republic of Indonesia. 24 May 2019. Retrieved 30 August 2026 – via Wikimedia Commons.

• "The Sculpture of Indonesia". National Gallery of Art. 1990. Retrieved 27 August 2026.

• "Jakarta - Palembang 2018". Olympic Council of Asia. Retrieved 27 August 2026.

• "Jakarta 1962". Olympic Council of Asia. Retrieved 27 August 2026.

• "New Delhi 1951". Olympic Council of Asia. Retrieved 27 August 2026.

• "5 facts about Muslims and Christians in Indonesia". Pew Research Center. 2024. Archived from the original on 15 May 2024. Retrieved 3 June 2026.

• Decree of the President of Republic of Indonesia Number 50 Year 1993 on the National Commission on Human Rights (Presidential Decree 50). President of Indonesia. 7 July 1993. Retrieved 11 February 2026.

• Keputusan Presiden (Keppres) Nomor 4 Tahun 1993 tentang Satwa dan Bunga Nasional [Presidential Decree Number 4 of 1993 concerning National Animals and Flowers] (Presidential Decree). President of the Republic of Indonesia. 1993 – via Audit Board of Indonesia's Legal Documentation and Information Network.

• "[2010 Version] Distribution of GRDP to Total GRDP of 38 Provinces at Current Market Prices by Province (Percent), 2025". Statistics Indonesia. 19 February 2026. Retrieved 10 September 2026.

• "Gini ratio in March 2024 was 0.379". Statistics Indonesia. 1 July 2024. Archived from the original on 5 December 2024. Retrieved 15 July 2024.

• "Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2020" [Results of the 2020 Population Census] (PDF) (in Indonesian). Statistics Indonesia. 21 January 2021. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 21 January 2021.

• Hasil Survei Penduduk Antar Sensus (SUPAS 2025) [Results of the 2025 Intercensal Population Survey (SUPAS 2025)] (Report) (in Indonesian). Statistics Indonesia. 5 May 2026. Retrieved 26 August 2026.

• "In March 2026, the percentage of the poor population decreased to 8.07 percent". Statistics Indonesia. 5 August 2026. Retrieved 10 September 2026.

• "Indonesia's Economic Growth in 2025 was 5.11 Percent". Statistics Indonesia. 5 February 2026. Retrieved 26 August 2026.

• Na'im, A.; Syaputra, H. (2010). "Kewarganegaraan, Suku Bangsa, Agama, dan Bahasa Sehari-hari Penduduk Indonesia" [Citizenship, Ethnicity, Religion, and Everyday Language of the Indonesian Population] (PDF) (in Indonesian). Statistics Indonesia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 23 September 2015.

• "Labor Market Indicators Indonesia August 2025". Statistics Indonesia. 30 December 2025. Retrieved 27 August 2026.

• "Tugas TNI Angkatan Darat, Angkatan Laut dan Angkatan Udara Sesuai Undang-Undang No. 34 Tahun 2004" [Duties of the Indonesian Army, Navy, and Air Force Pursuant to Law No. 34 of 2004] (in Indonesian). Tentara Nasional Indonesia. 13 March 2007. Retrieved 22 August 2026.

• "Indonesia – Intangible heritage, cultural sector". UNESCO. Retrieved 21 January 2025.

• "Toba Caldera UNESCO Global Geoparks". UNESCO Global Geoparks. Archived from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.

• "Borobudur Temple Compounds". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 21 January 2025.

• "Lorentz National Park". UNESCO World Heritage Centre.

• "Prambanan Temple Compounds". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 25 December 2025.

• "Indonesia - United Nations". Archived from the original on 2 March 2022. Retrieved 29 May 2026.

• "Member States - United Nations". Archived from the original on 13 September 2022. Retrieved 29 May 2026.

• Widyawati, S. (11 July 2024). "United Nations thanks Indonesia for its contribution to Peacekeeping". indonesia.un.org. United Nations. Retrieved 31 August 2026.

• "Agreement between the Republic of Indonesia and the Kingdom of the Netherlands Concerning West New Guinea (New York Agreement)". UN Peacemaker. United Nations Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs. 15 August 1962. Archived from the original on 26 January 2022. Retrieved 25 July 2026.

• "World Bank and Education in Indonesia". World Bank. 1 September 2024. Archived from the original on 4 March 2025. Retrieved 24 January 2025.

Reference works and databases

• "Indonesia". The World Factbook (2025 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. 3 December 2025. Retrieved 5 December 2025.

• "INDONESIA Definition & Meaning". Dictionary.com. Archived from the original on 9 May 2022. Retrieved 7 May 2022.

• Hall, R. (2009). "Indonesia, Geology" (PDF). In Gillespie, R.G.; Clague, D.A. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Islands. University of California Press. pp. 454–460. doi:10.1525/9780520943728-104. ISBN 978-0-520-94372-8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 April 2024. Retrieved 3 June 2026.

• Reni, Dewi S.; Renaldi, J. (November–December 2019). "The Indonesian Legal System and Legal Research". Hauser Global Law School Program, New York University School of Law. Archived from the original on 22 August 2026. Retrieved 22 August 2026.

• "World Economic Outlook Database (April 2026 Edition)". www.imf.org. International Monetary Fund. 14 April 2026. Retrieved 18 April 2026.

• "Indonesia". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 7 May 2022.

• "Indonesia". The Observatory of Economic Complexity. 2024. Retrieved 3 September 2026.

• "Share of the population using the Internet - Indonesia". Our World in Data. Retrieved 18 July 2025.

• "Share of people living in urban areas, 2025". Our World in Data. Retrieved 1 June 2026.

• Feener, R. Michael (2019). "Islam in Southeast Asia to c. 1800". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.40. ISBN 978-0-19-027772-7.

• Hamzah, H.; Narang, Agnesya M.; Yusari, A. (2021). "Legal systems in Indonesia: overview". Practical Law. Thomson Reuters. Archived from the original on 19 March 2025. Retrieved 18 March 2025.

• "Median age of population – Indonesia". Population Division Data Portal. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 23 August 2026.

• "Chapter 17: Southeast Asia-II". The Unicode Standard, Version 17.0. The Unicode Consortium. Retrieved 1 September 2026.

• "Government expenditure on education, total (% of GDP) - Indonesia". World Bank. Retrieved 8 May 2025.

• "Indonesia - Data". World Bank Open Data. World Bank. Retrieved 26 August 2026.

Further reading

• Cribb, R. (2001). Historical Atlas of Indonesia. Routledge. Retrieved 19 May 2021.
• Fossati, D.; Hui, Y-F. (2017). The Indonesia National Survey Project: Economy, Society and Politics. ISEAS Publishing. Retrieved 19 May 2021.

External links

• Key Development Forecasts for Indonesia from International Futures

Government

• Government Archived 12 May 2025 at the Wayback Machine – Official website of the Government of Indonesia
• Presidency – official website of the president of Indonesia
• Vice President – official website of the vice president of Indonesia
• People's Consultative Assembly – official website of People's Consultative Assembly of the Republic of Indobesia
• Regional Representative Council Archived 3 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine – official website of Indonesia Regional Representative Council
• House of Representatives Archived 4 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine – official website of Indonesia House of Representatives
• Supreme Court Archived 12 March 2026 at the Wayback Machine – official website of the Supreme Court of Indonesia
• Constitutional Court – official website of the Constitutional Court of Indonesia
• Statistics – official website of Statistics Indonesia

History

• "History" – Indonesian history at Repositori Institusi

Tourism

• Wonderful Indonesia Archived 27 April 2025 at the Wayback Machine – Indonesia's official tourism portal

Maps

• Wikimedia Atlas of Indonesia
• Geographic data related to Indonesia at OpenStreetMap